From
the Publisher
The work by an Indological scholar who has studied
different architectural traditions of the world covers the
architecture and iconography of some 36 Islamic tombs in India
spanning a period of over 500 years from c.AD 1230 to 1754. It
begins with a brief historical background to the Islamic rule
in northern India and a discussion on burial practices and
tomb types of the time to further understanding of the
underlying concept of construction and functions of the tombs.
Abounding in numerous line drawings of plans and
elevations, and figures, it examines the influence of
different traditions- Buddhist and Hindu as well as other
Asian and African and Mediterranean traditions-on evolution of
the form of Islamic tombs. It makes a detailed examination of
the Indo-Islamic tombs under consideration: their description,
size, plan and elevation including the interior space and
application of the mandala patterns over the tomb structures,
the techniques of construction, masonry and artisanship
employed in them. It explains the place and relevance of each
monument in the overall scheme of Indo-Islamic architectural
development and growth as well as the importance of each by
itself. It delves into the religious, philosophical and
mathematical bases of the architecture and its application to
tomb building. The research also involves a comparative study
of Indo-Islamic tombs vis-à-vis other architectural marvels of
the world- Islamic and non-Islamic.
The book will be extremely relevant to scholars and
students of Indian, particularly Indo-Islamic, iconography and
those interested in Indo-Islamic cultural traditions in
general.
Author Description
Fredrick W. Bunce, a Ph.D. a cultural historian of
international eminence, is an authority on ancient iconography
and Buddhist arts. He has been honoured with prestigious
awards/commendations and is listed in who's who in American
Art and the International Biographical Dictionary, 1980. He
has published the Encyclopaedia of Buddhist Deities (2 vols.),
Encyclopaedia of Hindu Deities (3 vols.), Dictionary of
Buddhist and Hindu Iconography, Yantra of deities and their
Numerological Foundations, Numbers: their Iconographic
Consideration in Buddhist and Hindu Practices and Iconography
of Architectural Plans. He is currently Professor Emeritus of
Art, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, and Indians.
Preface
For years, while visiting and then living in Southeast
Asia, I had avoided travel to India. My education had made me
aware of some of the architectural glories, which that country
possessed, but my awareness of the poverty in which millions
existed colored my desire to travel to India.
Then, my publisher invited me to New Delhi. The
graciousness with which I was treated was beyond what I had
ever experienced before. At that time, I was taken around
Delhi, New Delhi and then to Agra!
Somehow, the glories of Indian architecture, both Hindu and
Islamic, neutralized my reactions to the desperate conditions
in which so many people existed. I was not prepared for the
incredible beauty of the "Red Fort" (Shahjahanabda) of Delhi
or of the "Red Fort" (Akharabad) of Agra. Luckily, I viewed
these two marvels before being taken to the famed Taj Mahal,
the Tomb of Hazrat Mumtaz-uz-Zamani!
Upon entering through the main gate/pavilion into the
chahar-bagh and being confronted with the magnificent
mausoleum, I was totally unprepared for my reaction! Tears
rolled down my cheeks as I cried at the sheer, unrivaled,
transcendental beauty of that place.
Nothing! Nothing, which I had seen before, had affected me
in the way that the Taj Mahal had, with the exception of
Java's famed Borobudur. The adjectives that are applied to
this ensemble are puny in comparison to the actual sight!
I then began to immerse myself into the architecture of
Hindu India. What was revealed was, in a word, incompared! I
had visited, studied and photographed the Gothic cathedrals in
Western Europe and reveled in their beauty. But, upon viewing
the many Hindu temples of India, I was struck with what can
only be described as "awe". There was also, for me, a kind of
mystical aura that surrounded these structures.
Was it because they were new to my ken? Was it because they
were vastly different from the architecture in which I had
been so long immersed? Was it a composite reaction between the
plight of so many Indian peoples and the magnificence of the
structures? Or, was it something else? I do not know! I do
know that many of the temples and tombs of India rival the
best of Europe in their beauty. It is like comparing apples
and arranges! Nonetheless, the architecture of this country,
of these people is incomparable!
As I have stated, my first contact with Indian architecture
wa Indo-Islamic. Besides the three monuments noted above, I
also viewed on that first fateful trip the Quwwat-ul-Islam
Masjid. Fortuitious! Later I was able to see the Tomb of
Humayun as well as the Tomb of Safdar Jang. In these two tombs
are literally the "Alpha and Omega" of Mughal tombs.
For years these experiences had resided and nestled deep in
my consciousness. It has only been recently that they have
come to the fore and asserted them. I have spent the last two
decades studying and considering first Buddhist and then Hindu
iconography. My concentration on Indo-Islamic is, therefore, a
natural progression.
Many works have been devoted to the architecture of
India-Buddhist, Hindu and Islamic. These works, predominantly,
are of a general nature, either treating the whole - i.e.,
Buddhist or Hindu or Islamic - or various dynasty and/or areas
- e.g., Bijapur, Gujarat, Gupta, Hoysala, etc. To find example
of Indo-Islamic tombs, one is forced to consult numerous tomes
in order to gain a clear and relatively comprehensive overview
of the subject.
Therefore, this brief consideration was undertaken to treat
thirty-six tombs from: the Tomb No.36, Delhi, a. 1230 C.E., to
the Tomb of Safdarjang, Delhi, c. 1754 C.E. - i.e., a span of
a little over five hundred years. My interest is their
apparent genesis as well as the iconography inherent in these
monuments. Plans are central to this consideration. However,
elevations are not to be discounted. In the presentation of
the elevations in this study, they are "proportional" - i.e.,
they are the depiction of major architectural forms and masses
- and are not purported to be precise in the presentation of
their minor, architectural details. The computer was utilized
in the construction of these elevations. The plans, on the
other hand, are relatively precise.
Introduction
Historical Overview
Some three-hundred fifty odd years after the death of Nabi
Muhammad (c.570-632), Islam had made its way into the northern
regions of India. The Turks, through military slaves, were to
establish various reigns until the early Sixteenth Century.
Sabuktigin of Ghazni(977-997) established his dynasty in
Afganistan, invaded southward to the shore of the Indus River
and established the Ghaznavid dynasty in northern India. While
the western Ghaznavid succumbed to the Seljuks, the Indian-Afgani part of the kingdom remained. Sabuktigin was
followined by his son Mahmud of Ghazni. In 1173 Muhammad of
Ghur defeated the Ghaznavids and subdued the northwestern
territories as far as Delhi. Qutb-ud-din, a former military
slave, a general in Muhammad of Ghur's army occupied Benares
and was later to achieve additional notoriety and power.
Muhammad of Ghur was assassinated in 1206 and Qutb-ud-din
Aibak was elected as commander in chief and later assumed the
title of Sultan of Delhi. He was succeeded by Sultan Iltutmish
(c.1206-1290) and lived through the early Mongol invasions of
northern India. For a number of years one ruler succeeded
another, usually through assassination - a bloody and all too
frequently, a normal occurrence in India and other Islamic
kingdoms where he law of primogeniture usually did not apply.
In 1320 Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq assumed power. He was followed
by his son Muhammad bin Tughluq. The Tughluqs were supplanted
by Firuz Shah and he, in turn, was followed by a number of
weak sultans. Again the Mongols invaded under the leadership
of Timur and the Turkish Sultanate was destroyed forever in
India.
In quick succession, Northern India was ruled by various
Sayyids and followed by the Lodis. Then, Zahir-al-Din Muhammad
Babur, a Chagatai Turk, King of Ferghana (now in Uzbekistan),
"the Great Mughal," a descendent of Timur through his father
and Chingiz (Ghengis) Khan through his mother, captured Kabul
and began to expand his Afghani empire southward. This was the
beginning of the great Mughal Empire in India. Humayun
succeeded his father, Babur, and was in turn succeeded by
Akbar the Great, Akbar the builder, Akbar the conqueror, Akbar
the seeker of the Divine, and the Mughal Empire was firmly
established and lasted until the British incursions at which
time it had weakened from within to the point of near
collapse.
Burial Practices
The Mughals followed a practice long established in the
Islamic world - i.e., the construction of tombs for the
deceased. Within this potentially rich land- i.e., rich in
manpower and natural resources - the Mughals elevated tomb
building to a leave unmatched aesthetically by any other
civilization. Nonetheless, they did not deviate from
traditional burial practices. The body of the deceased was
ritually washed and wrapped in a white shroud without any
adornment whatsoever. Every man, woman and child met his Maker
as he entered the world on an equal basis. However, their
equal status before Allah did not apply to the tomb in which
they were laid.
The body was always laid parallel to the qibla or
perpendicular to the direction of Mecca. Iconographically,
this allowed the deceased to merely turn onto his or her side
to face Mecca. In addition, the body was placed in a 'vault'
so that he or she may sit up in order to reply to the Angels
of the Grave when they appeared on the night after burial.
Tomb Types
Six tomb types in the Islamic world may be noted by plan-
i.e., 1) the canopy tomb which is open on all sides and
generally possesses four or eight supporting pillars or piers,
2) a modified canopy tomb in which a qibla wall is
established, 3) an enclosed tomb generally square but may also
be octagonal with a single entrance, 4) a tomb with a
courtyard attached, 5) a tomb to which other tombs are
attached creating a single roofed area, and 6) the mashhad or
a domed, square area with an ambulatory on three sides.
Five specific Indo-Islamic, general tomb may be identified.
They are derived, in part from the six tomb types noted by
Hillenbrand. First, the canopy tomb and hereafter referred to
as Type A. This tomb type is characterized by an open plan in
which the roof and dome, where applicable, is supported by a
series of columns or piers. An example is seen in the Sayyid
Usman Rauza (pp.78-81).
Second, is an enclosed square with one, three or four
entrances and may be surrounded by a covered verandah of one
or two aisles ( a qisles wall being the feature of the one and
three entranced square tomb) and hereafter referred to as Type
B. This type is characterized by solid masonry walls covered
by a dome without a surrounding verandah. Generally, it
consists of a single storey. An example is seen in the Tomb of
Sultan Iltutmish (pp.38-41).
Third, is a square plan with four corner towers or minarets
extending at 45 degree beyond the corners of the square, or
incorporated as part of a square plan. Generally this type is
shown with a qibla and hereafter referred to as Type C. As a
rule, this possesses multi-storeys, although there may be a
single storey. Example are seen in the Tomb of Sultan Ghari or
Tomb of Muhammad Ghaus.
Fourth is an enclosed octagon or an enclosed octagon within
an octagonal verandah, a type that enjoyed considerable use
from the 14th through the 16th through the 16th Centuries, C.E. This type may be found with one, three, four, seven or
eight entrances to the central area and hereafter referred to
as Type D. The latter variation - i.e., the octagon with an
octagonal verandah - generally is characterized by three open
arches on each face of the verandah amounting to twenty-four
arches. Example of this type are seen in the Tomb of Shah
Rukn-i 'Alam or Tomb of Sher .
Fifth is a combination generally of square and octagon.
Particularly, this type is characterized by the employment of
a muthamman baghadi, and incorporates the ninefold plan -
i.e., the plan in which a central chamber is surrounded by
eight smaller chambers or areas, four at the cardinal points
and four at the intercardinal points and hereafter referred to
as Type E. As a rule, this type possesses multi-storeys and
are often set upon a podium and within a chahar-bagh, and is
the most developed of the various tomb plans. Examples are
seen in the Tomb of Humayun or the Taj Mahal.
The early Indo-Islamic tombs, particularly of the Slave or
Mamluk Dynasties tended to be square- e.g., the Tomb of Sultan
Ghari, the Tomb of Sultan Iltutmish, the Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din
Tughluq I, etc. However, the Tomb of Khan-i Jihan Tilangani
ushered in the octagonal tomb with a verandah. Following this
monument, a majority of the mausolea, particularly for rulers
of the Sayyid Dynasty, tended to be octagonal. Later, this
form was employed for lesser nobles during the Lodi Dynasty
and the subsequent Mughal or Timurud Period. With the
ascendancy of the Great Mughals - i.e, from Humayun (1530-1556
C.E.) through Shah Jahan (1628-1666), the Great Timuruds,
tombs of monumental proportions appeared. Most of these tombs
were based upon the square, or a variation with the square as
the base - e.g., the Tomb of Akbar, the Tomb of Jahangir, the
Gol Gumbaz, the Tomb of Jahan Begum, the Tomb of Safdar Jang,
etc.
Scope
This study will, therefore, consider those Islamic tombs of
India from the Slave or Mamluk Dynasty -i.e., the Tomb of
Sultan Ghari - to the last of the important Mughal tombs -
i.e., the Tomb of Safdar Jang - and the genesis of their
design, or plan. Emphasis will be placed upon the use and type
of internal space, the derivation of the plan(s), the
application of design principles inherent in both Islamic and
Hindu faiths in India, and a consideration of possible
iconographic implications.
Plans
The plan is the starting point, therefore, each plan will
be the axis of this consideration. The plans were constructed
via computer and are relatively exact in their proportions and
dimensions. Nonetheless, the elevations are not without their
importance as they are outgrowths of the plan.
Elevations
The elevations herein supplied are proportional renderings
of the various masses and salient details of each tomb. They
are not 'scale drawings' in the strict sense. Nonetheless,
they do follow the major masses accurately. In addition, it
was observed that a number of the elevations horizontal forms
fell within the confines of a Deshiya Mandala. Therefore, this
mandala was applied to all elevations as a standard elevation
proportion. The twelve pada may have special numerological
significance. It is known that both Buddhist and Hindu placed
great faith in the belief and the science of numerology - so
to does the Islamic world. Twelve is an auspicious, cosmic
number which comprehends all numbers lowers than itself. It is
associated with the circle (12x30=360degree), the number of
daylight hours, number of signs in the Zodiac and the number
of months in a year.
Mandalas
Although the tombs are Islamic, the ancient influence of
Buddhist and Hindu preexistent forms and such treatises as the
Manasara and Mayamata were ingrained in the sthapati who were
often employed by the sultans and emperors. Two mandala were
especially applicable in the history of Buddhist and Hindu
structures, especially temples - i.e., the Manduka Mandala and
the Paramashayika Mandala. The Manduka Mandala is construced
of sixty-four pada (eight ranks of eight) while the
Paramashayika Mandala consists of eighty-one pada (nine ranks
of nine). It is seen that either the Manduka Mandala or the
Paramashayika Mandala are often applicable to the square plans
of these Indo-Islamic tombs. Similarly, the circular Manduka
Mandala is seen as applicable, especially to the octagonal
mausolea.
