From the Publisher In the Hindu worldview, sakti is the Mother of the Universe: the highest primal power. She is accordingly, the all-prevading , intangible energy principle that propels the cosmos and its endless human dimensions with the life-throbs of activity and culture. Many are her songs, countless her stories, numerous her names. Worship of Sakti, as a pan-Indian phenomenon, predates Sanskritic influences of every kind. Combining his extensive fieldwork with diverse published and unpublished sources: archaeological, historical and religious, Francesco Brighenti’s study traces its presence in Orissa. Which, perhaps provides the best paradigm of an age-old Goddess cult, deeply rooted in the autochthonous religious traditions of Eastern India. It is the first all encompassing study, in an ethono-historical perspective, exploring the multi-linear evolution of Sakti worship in Orissa: from the pre proto-historical times to the late medieval epoch and even its continuity into the modern period-with contextual focus on its probable genesis, historical development, festivals, ritualistic patterns, and cultural sources including myths, legends and folklore. The book also incorporates, besides a description of important Sakta centres in Orissa, a study of the Divine Mother’s iconography features in her multifarious manifestations. Together with around hundred illustration highlighting the varied representations of Sakti in sculpture, this study will interest not only the scholars of archaeology, history and religion, but historians of art as well. Author Description Francesco Brighenti has traveled extensively in India in pursuit of his academic concerns around the living traditions of Hinduism. And, resultantly, having worked on the goddess-cult of Orissa during 1995-97, he took his PhD from the Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, earlier, in 1991, he graduated in history form the University of Venice. As a member of the Venitian Academy of Indian studies: an Association of Indologists affiliated to the Department of Studies of Eastern Asia, University of Venice, Dr. Brighenti is presently researching upon the religious cults practised by different tribes of Orissa, like the Hill Saoras and the Kondhs, and their relation to the regional typologies of Hindu Cults. CONTENTS Preface vii List of B/W Figures xv List of Coloured Illustrations xix CHAPTER ONE AUTOCHITHONOUS ROOTS OF SAKTI CULT IN ORISSA 11 1 The Austro-Asiatic Cultural Heritage of Orissa 12 2 The Dravidian Cultural Heritage of Orissa 18 3 Worship of the Female principle in Pre-Patriarchal Societies 23 4 Worship of Malevolent Female Deities and Spirits 25 5 Aniconic Representation of Goddesses 28 6 Links between Sakti and Naga Cults 35 7 Links between Sakti and Yaksa Cults 45 8 Sakti Cult and Tribal Shamanism 52 9 CHAPTER TWO SAKTI CULT IN ORISSA IN THE HISTORICAL PERIOD 67 1 Rise of Sakti Cult in the Gupta Age 68 2 Sakti Cult in the Post-Gupta Period 80 3 Sakta Tantrism in the Bhauma Epoch 89 4 The Kapalikas and Kaulas in Orissa 116 5 Sakti Cult in the Somavamsi Period 130 6 Cult Syncreticism in the Ganga and Suryavamsi Periods 140 7 Proliferation of Royal Goddesses in the Later Medieval Period 155 8 Final Considerations 169 CHAPTER THREE IMPORTANT SAKTA CENTRES OF ORISSA 171 1 Jajpur 172 2 Purusottama or Puri 179 3 Kakatpur 185 4 Jahankad 193 5 Banki 198 6 Gopalprasad, Talcher 201 7 Banpur 204 8 Ekamra or Bhubaneswar 207 CHAPTER FOUR MANIFESTATIONS OF SAKTI 213 1 Durga 214 2 Camunda 237 3 The Divine Mothers 259 4 Varahi 283 5 64 Yoginis 293 6 Serpent Goddesses 307 7 Parvati 317 8 Sri-Lakshmi 327 CHAPTER FIVE SAKTA FESTIVALS AND RITUALS 337 1 The Cycle of the Caitra Festivals 338 2 The Cycle of the Asvina and Karttika Festivals 356 3 Other important Sakta Festivals of Orissa 372 4 The Tradition of Human sacrifice in Orissa 393 Conclusion 411 B/W Figures 419 Colour Plates 459 Glossary 479 Bibliography 493 Index 499

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